Web-Materials

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC
MATERIALS AND DEVICES

Third Edition

S.O. Kasap
Professor of Electrical Engineering
University of Saskatchewan
Canada

"Concepts form the basis for any science. These are ideas, usually somewhat vague (especially when first encountered), which often defy really adequate definition. The meaning of a new concept can seldom be grasped from reading a one-paragraph discussion. There must be time to become accustomed to the concept, to investigate it with prior knowledge, and to associate it with personal experience. Inability to work with details of a new subject can often be traced to inadequate understanding of its basic concepts"

William C. Reynolds,
Thermodynamics (McGraw-Hill, 1968: Now out of print)

Table of Contents

Chapter 1
	Elementary Materials Science Concepts	3
1.1	Atomic Structure and Atomic Number	3
1.2	Atomic Mass and Mole	8
1.3	Bonding and Types of Solids	9
1.3.1	Molecules and General Bonding Principles	9
1.3.2	Covalently Bonded Solids: Diamond	11
1.3.3	Metallic Bonding: Copper	13
1.3.4	Ionically Bonded Solids: Salt	14
1.3.5	Secondary Bonding	18
1.3.6	Mixed Bonding	22
1.4	Kinetic Molecular Theory	25
1.4.1	Mean Kinetic Energy and Temperature	25
1.4.2	Thermal Expansion	31
1.5	Molecular Velocity and Energy Distribution	36
1.6	Heat, Thermal Fluctuations, and Noise	40
1.7	Thermally Activated Processes	45
1.7.1	Arrhenius Rate Equation	45
1.7.2	Atomic Diffusion and the Diffusion Coefficient	47
1.8	The Crystalline State	49
1.8.1	Types of Crystals	49
1.8.2	Crystal Directions and Planes	56
1.8.3	Allotropy and Carbon	61
1.9	Crystalline Defects and Their Significance	64
1.9.1	Point Defects: Vacancies and Impurities	64
1.9.2	Line Defects: Edge and Screw Dislocations	68
1.9.3	Planar Defects: Grain Boundaries	70
1.9.4	Crystal Surfaces and Surface Properties	73
1.9.5	Stoichiometry, Nonstoichiometry, and Defect Structures	75
1.10	Single-Crystal Czochralski Growth	76
1.11	Glasses and Amorphous Semiconductors	78
1.11.1	Glasses and Amorphous Solids	78
1.11.2	Crystalline and Amorphous Silicon	80
1.12	Solid Solutions and Two-Phase Solids	83
1.12.1	Isomorphous Solid Solutions: Isomorphous Alloys	83
1.12.2	Phase Diagrams: Cu-Ni and Other Isomorphous Alloys	84
1.12.3	Zone Refining and Pure Silicon Crystals	88
1.12.4	Binary Eutectic Phase Diagrams and Pb-Sn Solders	90
	Additional Topics	95
1.13	Bravais Lattices	95
	CD Selected Topics and Solved Problems	98
	Defining Terms	98
	Questions and Problems	102
Chapter 2
	Electrical and Thermal Conduction in Solids	113
2.1	Classical Theory: The Drude Model	114
2.1.1	Metals and Conduction by Electrons	114
2.2	Temperature Dependence of Resistivity: Ideal Pure Metals	122
2.3	Matthiessen's and Nordheim's Rules	125
2.3.1	Matthiessen's Rule and the Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity (α)	125
2.3.2	Solid Solutions and Nordheim's Rule	134
2.4	Resistivity of Mixtures and Porous Materials	139
2.4.1	Heterogeneous Mixtures	139
2.4.2	Two-Phase Alloy (Ag-Ni) Resistivity and Electrical Contacts	143
2.5	The Hall Effect and Hall Devices	145
2.6	Thermal Conduction	149
2.6.1	Thermal Conductivity	149
2.6.2	Thermal Resistance	153
2.7	Electrical Conductivity of Nonmetals	154
2.7.1	Semiconductors	155
2.7.2	Ionic Crystals and Glasses	159
	Additional Topics	163
2.8	Skin Effect: HF Resistance of a Conductor	163
2.9	Thin Metal Films	166
2.9.1	Conduction in Thin Metal Films	166
2.9.2	Resistivity of Thin Films	167
2.10	Interconnects in Microelectronics	172
2.11	Electromigration and Black's Equation	176
	CD Selected Topics and Solved Problems	178
	Defining Terms	178
	Questions and Problems	180
Chapter 3
	Elementary Quantum Physics	191
3.1	Photons	191
3.1.1	Light as a Wave	191
3.1.2	The Photoelectric Effect	194
3.1.3	Compton Scattering	199
3.1.4	Black Body Radiation	202
3.2	The Electron as a Wave	205
3.2.1	De Broglie Relationship	205
3.2.2	Time-Independent Schršdinger Equation	208
3.3	Infinite Potential Well: A Confined Electron	212
3.4	Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle	217
3.5	Tunneling Phenomenon: Quantum Leak	221
3.6	Potential Box: Three Quantum Numbers	228
3.7	Hydrogenic Atom	231
3.7.1	Electron Wavefunctions	231
3.7.2	Quantized Electron Energy	236
3.7.3	Orbital Angular Momentum and Space Quantization	241
3.7.4	Electron Spin and Intrinsic Angular Momentum S	245
3.7.5	Magnetic Dipole Moment of the Electron	248
3.7.6	Total Angular Momentum J	252
3.8	The Helium Atom and the Periodic Table	254
3.8.1	He Atom and Pauli Exclusion Principle	254
3.8.2	Hund's Rule	256
3.9	Stimulated Emission and Lasers	258
3.9.1	Stimulated Emission and Photon Amplification	258
3.9.2	Helium-Neon Laser	261
3.9.3	Laser Output Spectrum	265
	Additional Topics	267
3.10	Optical Fiber Amplifiers	267
	CD Selected Topics and Solved Problems	268
	Defining Terms	269
	Questions and Problems	272
Chapter 4
	Modern Theory of Solids	285
4.1	Hydrogen Molecule: Molecular Orbital Theory of Bonding	285
4.2	Band Theory of Solids	291
4.2.1	Energy Band Formation	291
4.2.2	Properties of Electrons in a Band	296
4.3	Semiconductors	299
4.4	Electron Effective Mass	303
4.5	Density of States in an Energy Band	305
4.6	Statistics: Collections of Particles	312
4.6.1	Boltzmann Classical Statistics	312
4.6.2	Fermi-Dirac Statistics	313
4.7	Quantum Theory of Metals	315
4.7.1	Free Electron Model	315
4.7.2	Conduction in Metals	318
4.8	Fermi Energy Significance	320
4.8.1	Metal-Metal Contacts: Contact Potential	320
4.8.2	The Seebeck Effect and the Thermocouple	322
4.9	Thermionic Emission and Vacuum Tube Devices	328
4.9.1	Thermionic Emission: Richardson-Dushman Equation	328
4.9.2	Schottky Effect and Field Emission	332
4.10	Phonons	337
4.10.1	Harmonic Oscillator and Lattice Waves	337
4.10.2	Debye Heat Capacity	342
4.10.3	Thermal Conductivity of Nonmetals	348
4.10.4	Electrical Conductivity	350
	Additional Topics	352
4.11	Band Theory of Metals: Electron Diffraction in Crystals	352
4.12	Grźneisen's Model of Thermal Expansion	361
	CD Selected Topics and Solved Problems	363
	Defining Terms	363
	Questions and Problems	365
Chapter 5
	Semiconductors	373
5.1	Intrinsic Semiconductors	374
5.1.1	Silicon Crystal and Energy Band Diagram	374
5.1.2	Electrons and Holes	376
5.1.3	Conduction in Semiconductors	378
5.1.4	Electron and Hole Concentrations	380
5.2	Extrinsic Semiconductors	388
5.2.1	n-Type Doping	388
5.2.2	p-Type Doping	390
5.2.3	Compensation Doping	392
5.3	Temperature Dependence of Conductivity	396
5.3.1	Carrier Concentration Temperature Dependence	396
5.3.2	Drift Mobility: Temperature and Impurity Dependence	401
5.3.3	Conductivity Temperature Dependence	404
5.3.4	Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors	406
5.4	Recombination and Minority Carrier Injection	407
5.4.1	Direct and Indirect Recombination	407
5.4.2	Minority Carrier Lifetime	410
5.5	Diffusion and Conduction Equations, and Random Motion	416
5.6	Continuity Equation	422
5.6.1	Time-Dependent Continuity Equation	422
5.6.2	Steady-State Continuity Equation	424
5.7	Optical Absorption	427
5.8	Piezoresistivity	431
5.9	Schottky Junction	435
5.9.1	Schottky Diode	435
5.9.2	Schottky Junction Solar Cell	440
5.10	Ohmic Contacts and Thermoelectric Coolers	443
	Additional Topics	448
5.11	Direct and Indirect Bandgap Semiconductors	448
5.12	Indirect Recombination	457
5.13	Amorphous Semiconductors	458
	CD Selected Topics and Solved Problems	461
	Defining Terms	461
	Questions and Problems	464
Chapter 6
	Semiconductor Devices	475
6.1	Ideal pn Junction	476
6.1.1	No Applied Bias: Open Circuit	476
6.1.2	Forward Bias: Diffusion Current	481
6.1.3	Forward Bias: Recombination and Total Current	487
6.1.4	Reverse Bias	489
6.2	pn Junction Band Diagram	494
6.2.1	Open Circuit	494
6.2.2	Forward and Reverse Bias	495
6.3	Depletion Layer Capacitance of the pn Junction	498
6.4	Diffusion (Storage) Capacitance and Dynamic Resistance	500
6.5	Reverse Breakdown: Avalanche and Zener Breakdown	502
6.5.1	Avalanche Breakdown	503
6.5.2	Zener Breakdown	504
6.6	Bipolar Transistor (BJT)	506
6.6.1	Common Base (CB) dc Characteristics	506
6.6.2	Common Base Amplifier	515
6.6.3	Common Emitter (CE) dc Characteristics	517
6.6.4	Low-Frequency Small-Signal Model	518
6.7	Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)	522
6.7.1	General Principles	522
6.7.2	JFET Amplifier	528
6.8	Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)	532
6.8.1	Field Effect and Inversion	532
6.8.2	Enhancement MOSFET	535
6.8.3	Threshold Voltage	539
6.8.4	Ion Implanted MOS Transistors and Poly-Si Gates	541
6.9	Light Emitting Diodes (LED)	543
6.9.1	LED Principles	543
6.9.2	Heterojunction High-Intensity LEDs	547
6.9.3	LED Characteristics	548
6.10	Solar Cells	551
6.10.1	Photovoltaic Device Principles	551
6.10.2	Series and Shunt Resistance	559
6.10.3	Solar Cell Materials, Devices, and Efficiencies	561
	Additional Topics	564
6.11	pin Diodes, Photodiodes, and Solar Cells	564
6.12	Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers and Lasers	566
	CD Selected Topics and Solved Problems	570
	Defining Terms	570
	Questions and Problems	573
Chapter 7
	Dielectric Materials and Insulation	583
7.1	Matter Polarization and Relative Permittivity	584
7.1.1	Relative Permittivity: Definition	584
7.1.2	Dipole Moment and Electronic Polarization	585
7.1.3	Polarization Vector P	589
7.1.4	Local Field Eloc and Clausius-Mossotti Equation	593
7.2	Electronic Polarization: Covalent Solids	595
7.3	Polarization Mechanisms	597
7.3.1	Ionic Polarization	597
7.3.2	Orientational (Dipolar) Polarization	598
7.3.3	Interfacial Polarization	600
7.3.4	Total Polarization	601
7.4	Frequency Dependence: Dielectric Constant and Dielectric Loss	603
7.4.1	Dielectric Loss	603
7.4.2	Debye Equations, Cole-Cole Plots, and Equivalent Series Circuit	611
7.5	Gauss's Law and Boundary Conditions	614
7.6	Dielectric Strength and Insulation Breakdown	620
7.6.1	Dielectric Strength: Definition	620
7.6.2	Dielectric Breakdown and Partial Discharges: Gases	621
7.6.3	Dielectric Breakdown: Liquids	622
7.6.4	Dielectric Breakdown: Solids	623
7.7	Capacitor Dielectric Materials	631
7.7.1	Typical Capacitor Constructions	631
7.7.2	Dielectrics: Comparison	634
7.8	Piezoelectricity, Ferroelectricity, and Pyroelectricity	638
7.8.1	Piezoelectricity	638
7.8.2	Piezoelectricity: Quartz Oscillators and Filters	644
7.8.3	Ferroelectric and Pyroelectric Crystals	647
	Additional Topics	654
7.9	Electric Displacement and Depolarization Field	654
7.10	Local Field and the Lorentz Equation	658
7.11	Dipolar Polarization	660
7.12	Ionic Polarization and Dielectric Resonance	662
7.13	Dielectric Mixtures and Heterogeneous Media	667
	CD Selected Topics and Solved Problems	669
	Defining Terms	670
	Questions and Problems	673
Chapter 8
	Magnetic Properties and Superconductivity	685
8.1	Magnetization of Matter	685
8.1.1	Magnetic Dipole Moment	685
8.1.2	Atomic Magnetic Moments	687
8.1.3	Magnetization Vector M	688
8.1.4	Magnetizing Field or Magnetic Field Intensity H	691
8.1.5	Magnetic Permeability and Magnetic Susceptibility	692
8.2	Magnetic Material Classifications	696
8.2.1	Diamagnetism	696
8.2.2	Paramagnetism	698
8.2.3	Ferromagnetism	699
8.2.4	Antiferromagnetism	699
8.2.5	Ferrimagnetism	700
8.3	Ferromagnetism Origin and the Exchange Interaction	700
8.4	Saturation Magnetization and Curie Temperature	703
8.5	Magnetic Domains: Ferromagnetic Materials	705
8.5.1	Magnetic Domains	705
8.5.2	Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy	706
8.5.3	Domain Walls	708
8.5.4	Magnetostriction	711
8.5.5	Domain Wall Motion	712
8.5.6	Polycrystalline Materials and the M versus H Behavior	713
8.5.7	Demagnetization	717
8.6	Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials	719
8.6.1	Definitions	719
8.6.2	Initial and Maximum Permeability	720
8.7	Soft Magnetic Materials: Examples and Uses	721
8.8	Hard Magnetic Materials: Examples and Uses	724
8.9	Superconductivity	729
8.9.1	Zero Resistance and the Meissner Effect	729
8.9.2	Type I and Type II Superconductors	733
8.9.3	Critical Current Density	736
8.10	Superconductivity Origin	739
	Additional Topics	740
8.11	Energy Band Diagrams and Magnetism	740
8.11.1	Pauli Spin Paramagnetism	740
8.11.2	Energy Band Model of Ferromagnetism	742
8.12	Anisotropic and Giant Magnetoresistance	744
8.13	Magnetic Recording Materials	749
8.14	Josephson Effect	756
8.15	Flux Quantization	758
	CD Selected Topics and Solved Problems	759
	Defining Terms	759
	Questions and Problems	763
Chapter 9
	Optical Properties of Materials	773
9.1	Light Waves in a Homogeneous Medium	774
9.2	Refractive Index	777
9.3	Dispersion: Refractive Index-Wavelength Behavior	779
9.4	Group Velocity and Group Index	784
9.5	Magnetic Field: Irradiance and Poynting Vector	787
9.6	Snell's Law and Total Internal Reflection (TIR)	789
9.7	Fresnel's Equations	793
9.7.1	Amplitude Reflection and Transmission Coefficients	793
9.7.2	Intensity, Reflectance, and Transmittance	799
9.8	Complex Refractive Index and Light Absorption	804
9.9	Lattice Absorption	811
9.10	Band-to-Band Absorption	813
9.11	Light Scattering in Materials	816
9.12	Attenuation in Optical Fibers	817
9.13	Luminescence, Phosphors, and White LEDs	820
9.14	Polarization	825
9.15	Optical Anisotropy	827
9.15.1	Uniaxial Crystals and Fresnel's Optical Indicatrix	829
9.15.2	Birefringence of Calcite	832
9.15.3	Dichroism	833
9.16	Birefringent Retarding Plates	833
9.17	Optical Activity and Circular Birefringence	835
	Additional Topics	837
9.18	Electro-optic Effects	837
	CD Selected Topics and Solved Problems	841
	Defining Terms	841
	Questions and Problems	844
Appendix
	Appendix A - Bragg's Diffraction Law and X-ray Diffraction	848
	Appendix B - Flux, Luminous Flux, and the Brightness of Radiation	853
	Appendix C - Major Symbols and Abbreviations	855
	Appendix D - Elements to Uranium	861
	Appendix E - Constants and Useful Information	864
	Index	866

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Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition - S. O. Kasap

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PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND DEVICES

Third Edition

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC
MATERIALS AND DEVICES